Fra Mauro was the Google Earth of the 1450s. By Adam Kessler APRIL 03, 2017
Detail from Fra Mauro's map, a work of unprecedented thoroughness and accuracy. PUBLIC DOMAIN 1,015
If you had landed in Venice during the mid-15th century, you might have been accosted by a monk with a prominent nose and baggy, smurf-like hat. Ignoring your exhaustion and atrocious body odor after a long sea journey, he would have dragged you to a nearby tavern and cross-examined you about your travels. What was the weather like? What kind of precious gems were mined? What animals did you encounter, and how many heads did they have?
The monk was Fra Mauro, a 15th-century version of Google Earth. Famous for his cartographic skills, he had been commissioned by King Alfonso of Portugal to produce a map of the world.Earth according to Fra Mauro. PUBLIC DOMAIN
The Portuguese were eager explorers and wealthy clients, and in the days before satellite imagery, Venice was a cartographers’ heaven. Arab traders and world explorers passed through the port, giving Fra Mauro an incomparable source of gossip and tall tales about the world. The fall of Constantinople, occurring a few years before the map was finished, would also have provided a rich source of well-traveled refugees, presumably willing to swap their stories for some bread or beer.
Crowdsourcing a map had never been easier, and Fra Mauro took full advantage. He interrogated these travelers with an inquisitiveness verging on belligerence, cross-checking their tales against the extensive library in his monastery in the Venice lagoon. He used their information to draw the map itself and pepper it with almost 3,000 annotations.Some of the thousands of annotations on the map. PUBLIC DOMAIN
Fra Mauro loved a good story, and his map is packed with pictures of amber, rubies, pearls, diamonds, manna, and “other notable things”. He was also fascinated by exotic animals and practices. Seven-headed serpents roam the province of Malabar in India, troglodytes run wild in East Africa, and the Barents Sea near Norway harbors fish that can “puncture the ships with a spike they have on their backs”.
More exotic treasures include a lake on an island in the Indian Ocean that can turn iron into gold. In the accompanying annotation, Fra Mauro hastily explained that he didn’t believe a word of this story, and included it “just to do justice to the testimony of many people.” Given that he repeated this particular tale in three different places and drew a spectacular gold lake in the middle of the Andaman Islands for good measure, his skepticism seems ambiguous to say the least.
To modern eyes, the monsters, lakes of honey-wine, and cannibals suggest credulity. In fact, however, the annotations on the map are full of doubt and skepticism. In both India and Africa, Fra Mauro gives no credence to the wild tales of “human and animal monsters,” noting that none of the travelers with whom he spoke could confirm the stories. “I leave research in the matter,” he concluded sarcastically, “to those who are curious about such things.”Fra Mauro’s depiction of Africa. PUBLIC DOMAIN
Fra Mauro was also exceptional in his rejection of religious and classical authority. Europe was not a haven of religious tolerance at the time; the Spanish inquisition started just 20 years after the map was completed. Mapmakers, consequently, focused on keeping the Church happy rather than worrying about minor geographic details. Medieval maps showed the location of Noah’s Ark, discussed the depravity of pagans, and illustrated the hideous giants Gog and Magog, lurking in the far North and eagerly awaiting the apocalypse. Fra Mauro, by contrast, took a rigidly empirical approach. The Garden of Eden was relegated to a sidebox, not shown in a real geographic location. He sternly noted that the tradition that the Gog and Magog lived in the Caucasus Mountains “is certainly and clearly mistaken and cannot be upheld in any way,” since plenty of people lived in and traveled to the mountains, and they would have noticed any monstrous giants living nearby.Adam and Eve made an appearance on the bottom-right corner of the map. PUBLIC DOMAIN
Fra Mauro also criticized various classical authorities. Like a cheeky schoolchild—or a commentator on an online forum—Fra Mauro prefaced his criticism by saying that he didn’t want to seem contrary but couldn’t help it that everyone else was wrong. Ptolemy got the size of Persia wrong, mislabeled Sri Lanka, and didn’t realize that you could sail all the way around Africa. Regarding the circumference of the Earth, Fra Mauro cited a couple of expert opinions and concluded dismissively that “they are not of much authenticity, since they have not been tested.” His robust skepticism marked a transition away from medieval traditions towards the intellectual excitement of the Renaissance.
As a result, Fra Mauro’s map was the most accurate ever made at the time. It wasn’t just his piercingly accurate national stereotypes; the Norwegians were “strong and robust,” while the Scottish were “of easy morals.” He was the first to depict Japan as an island, and the first European to show that you could sail all the way around Africa. The latter finding drew on reports from unfortunate traders blown by a storm ‘round South Africa, learning that it was circumnavigable and liberally endowed with 60-foot birds, capable of picking up elephants. Through depicting the riches, navigation routes, and people around the world, Fra Mauro didn’t just describe terrain, but played a part in encouraging further exploration and analysis, leading up to the famous Age of Exploration and the discovery of the Americas.Ships at sea on the map. PUBLIC DOMAIN
Modern interest in Fra Mauro’s map was sparked by Placido Zurla, a monk at the same monastery, who published a lengthy study in 1806. Since then, it’s been widely recognized that Fra Mauro was way ahead of his time for his accurate geographical knowledge, willingness to challenge authority, and emphasis on empirical observation.
The map is accurate enough to guide researchers to as-yet undiscovered archaeological sites. For example, Fra Mauro’s contacts in the Ethiopian Church allowed him to map medieval Ethiopia in surprising detail. He accurately portrayed a number of geographical features; the Awash River, mountain ranges surrounding Addis Ababa, and the Ziquala mountain and monastery (which is still there, 500 years later). Alongside geographical features, Fra Mauro plotted ancient cities that for centuries scholars assumed never existed. This assumption is challenged by archaeologists today, who have found unmistakable signs of past habitation in the sites that Fra Mauro indicated. Although no excavation has started, obsidian shards and pottery pieces litter the landscape, and small walls, old grindstones, and worn foundations are visible under moss and bushes.
If he were alive today, Fra Mauro would probably be disappointed to know that lakes of gold and wine existed just in the imagination of the travelers he interviewed. He would, however, be happy to know that his map is proving more accurate than skeptical cartographers gave it credit for, and that it still acts as a starting point for research and discovery.
Map Monday highlights interesting and unusual cartographic pursuits from around the world and through time. Read more Map Monday posts.
When we call a dog “sensitive,” we don’t mean it in a bad way. We’re just talking about dogs that are a little bit more emotionally delicate than others. Some dogs handle mild punishment very well, while others crumble apart at so much as a dirty look. This just means they’re very sensitive toward their owners, which is usually a good thing! If you’re looking for a dog that’s very receptive to your emotions, look no further than this list!
The American Pit Bull Terrier might have a bad rap, but they’re actually very sensitive dogs. Even when you take their rough history into account, the breed was developed to be soft and gentle toward their owners – only to hunt and fight other animals. Today, they’re very loving and affectionate dogs that do respond strongly to their owner’s emotions.
Like the Australian Shepherd, the Border Collie has been bred to work long hours in tough conditions. That said, they’re very soft dogs – emotionally sensitive to their handlers. Their sensitivity also makes them easy to train and work with because they respond very well to their owner’s desires. This aspect is one of the reasons you see Border Collies being so successful at working venues and dog sports of all kinds.
Despite their intimidating appearance, the Dogue de Bordeaux is actually a very emotionally soft dog. They are very sensitive to their families, deeply loyal and gentle around those they know. Although aloof with strangers, they respond strongly to their owners feelings and emotional well-being.
Like the American Pit Bull Terrier, the Staffordshire Bull Terrier is a dog that was bred to be sensitive and gentle around people. They are often called the “Nanny Dog” because of their gentle nature toward children. Staffordshire Bull Terriers make excellent family companions.
Hey Smart Witch: What is the definition of a "coven" exactly? A group of women friends meet occasionally to have a potluck dinner, watch the Moon come up, light candles if someone is sick, talk about Wicca and Witchcraft, and sometimes give each other books that they've read and talk about those. But they call themselves a coven. It is not a coven! There's been no initiations, none styles herself as the High Priestess (unless it's maybe the woman hosting that month's dinner), and it all is too casual to meet the most basic criteria for a coven. I don't think they can legitimately call themselves a "real" coven. What do you think?
The Smart Witch: Many people call their groups covens. Sometimes this is said with a wink and a smile. Sometimes it is said seriously in the belief that any group of people working together for the purpose of studying and performing acts that may be considered magic or Witchcraft have a claim to this term.
I have no interest in debating the issue of how people choose to label themselves or their groups, but here are my thoughts.
If you are talking specifically about Wicca, then since the late-1940s, covens generally have had structure, a "group mind" and rapport, trained priests and priestesses, members who are willing to work hard to achieve the focus necessary for spell work and ritual, training programs for members who are dedicated to learning, an initiatory process, a clear path forward in the tradition, and more.
In traditional Wicca, a coven likely will have "hived" from a mother coven when the priest or priestess attained a certain level of competency, knowledge of the tradition and wisdom deemed necessary to develop and manage a new coven. In this case, the priest or priestess will have been granted permission to break away, and given blessings and support as he or she begins to bring together a new group of like-minded people who understand such concepts as: • There is strength in numbers, but the coven can be only as strong as its weakest link. • There may be differences in personal beliefs, but there is no room for personal agendas that do not serve the highest good of the entire coven. • One must trust the gods and goddesses to lead him or her to the right teacher when the time is right for both the student and teacher, and one may have many teachers over time, all with valuable wisdom for the student. • The coven is not a support group for helping people to work through their problems - it is a place for those who have their personal problems under control or have a solid relationship with the gods and goddesses, and are working outside the coven to overcome any personal issues. • A coven is not a conventional school with textbooks, a syllabus and clear curriculum and competition for class standing; rather, it is a school of mystery, in which students are led to enlightenment through meditation, instruction, problem solving, life-long learning and experiences. • The coven is not a church, although there is worship of gods and goddesses, priests and priestesses, and an emphasis on spiritual growth. • Everyone in the coven is considered to be a priest or priestess (or in training to become one), and no one needs another person to intervene between them and the gods and goddesses. • There is no praying to the gods and goddesses to do things for the members, rather, the gods and goddesses are asked for guidance, instruction and strength. • Coven membership must not stand in for healthy family relationships - although it can feel like family - nor should one sever biological family relationships for the sake of the coven or the tradition.
So, while the group you describe appears to be a gathering of like-minded friends, I would describe it as a club or more accurately a group of good friends who may be Witches (or have an inclination toward Witchcraft) who enjoy good food and conversation in each other's company.
From your description - and your expectations as to what constitutes a "real" coven - I can't determine whether the group is platform for a deep commitment to the learning of "mysteries," sharing of craft-related experiences, group meditations, working together to raise energy toward the achievement of specific goals, or spiritual growth and enlightenment, which would be seen in a coven.
What I do see is an admirable strength as a result of the friendship and common interests that brought the individuals together initially and that have held them together going forward. With the group you describe, I appreciate the apparent "group mind," rapport, pleasure in the shared experiences of dining together, concern for the health and wellbeing of members, and dedication to learning.
I would not judge them unkindly - and I hope you will not either - for a lack of an initiatory ritual, overt worship of deity or deities, obedience to the direction of a priest or priestess, or formal training program. Also, many people consider themselves witches, yet never undertake spell work or formal ritual. So, if these good people have invited you to join them, I think that would be a good thing, so long as you do not use the invitation as an opportunity to "educate" them as to what a "real" coven is.
If you are interested in being part of a coven, it may take time for you to find the one that is right for you. You want to find one with members you believe you can trust, whose goals are aligned with yours, and with whom you can be absolutely honest. There should be a sense of having been led to that particular coven and to the relationships you will develop there - the leaders, teachers and other members.
There must be a willingness to set aside your own ego and what you've been taught, and give yourself over to the guidance of the leaders and traditions of the coven, and to that particular tradition's teachings. And you must be dedicated to your advancement in the tradition as you achieve the levels of knowledge and experience to which your teachers will lead you.
Coven membership is not something to be entered lightly, and for many people, coven membership is simply not a good "fit" for the way they wish to practice, worship (if at all), and advance in their own time and in their own way.
If it pleases this group of friends to term themselves a coven, there is no harm, and no need to judge through your own filter, or to argue the point with them. Simply enjoy the food, conversation and activities, and participate with friendship and joy. It sounds like a good group.
Preheat the oven to 350 F /180 C and line a few trays with parchment paper.
With a hand or stand mixer cream the butter and the brown sugar until pale, fluffy and smooth.
Add the golden syrup and beat until it's incorporated.
On a low speed, mix in the oats, flour, baking soda, baking powder and salt.
Once the dry and wet ingredients are evenly combined bring the dough together into a ball, wrap with cling wrap and refrigerate for 15-20 minutes.
Roll the dough into small balls about the size of a tablespoon and flatten on the tray until they are about 2 inches in diameter. Be sure to leave a bit of room between the cookies for spreading.
Bake for 10-12 minutes, until golden brown, then allow to cool on the trays.
Melt the chocolate and butter together in a heatproof bowl set over a pot of simmering water or in the microwave.
Spoon a teaspoon of chocolate onto the top of each cookie and spread out evenly using the back of a spoon.
Once the chocolate has slightly set swirl your spoon across the chocolate working your way down the cookie in the shape of a figure eight. This will create that beautiful classic hobnob look!
Earth according to Fra Mauro. PUBLIC DOMAIN
Some of the thousands of annotations on the map. PUBLIC DOMAIN
Fra Mauro’s depiction of Africa. PUBLIC DOMAIN
Adam and Eve made an appearance on the bottom-right corner of the map. PUBLIC DOMAIN
Ships at sea on the map. PUBLIC DOMAIN
